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Testing the Hudson River
waters
at the Boat Basin in Manhattan |
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All rivers begin as streams. Streams form from rainfall, melting
of snow or glaciers, as an outlet of a lake, and spring waters,
i.e. underground water coming to the surface. Streams gradually
increase in flow, join other streams establishing a branching,
a tributary network, and contribute to the formation of a river
system. The land area that drains rain and snow melt to a river
is called a watershed. Every person on earth lives within a watershed.
Rivers are some of the oldest features on Earth, and stretch
back in time millions of years. In the flowing waters of rivers,
many species of plants, fish, and insects evolved during this
time creating a specific river world.
Humans have been on earth for more than a million years, but
civilization, life in cities, has come about only in the last
several thousand years. One early civivilization was born on the
banks of two rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. Here the Sumerians
built the Uruk. The civilization of Egypt, which arose some five
thousand years ago, drew its life from the Nile. "The Nile," said
the great Arab traveler, Ibn Battuta "surpasses all the rivers
of the world in sweetness of taste, in length of course, and utility."
Indian cities developed on the rich alluvial soil left by the
annual flooding of the Indus River. Chinese civilization arose
on the banks of the Huanghe, the Yellow River, which brings its
rich yellow silt down from Mongolia. Rivers provided, and still
do, food, drinking water, and were the first communication highways.
Most of the world's streams and rivers are polluted as a result
of human needs for water, energy, food, recreation, transportation,
and manufacturing. Everything we do affects our waters, and by
allowing poison in our rivers, we are slowly drinking it ourselves.
Today, nearly 1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water
and worldwide, 25 million people die from drinking contaminated
water each year.
We are in danger of losing not only our rivers, but also our
lakes, forests, oceans, polar ice caps, and even the protection
of the ozone layer due to pollution, contamination, and the indiscriminate
use of our planet. Due to human activities, many species of animals
and plants are becoming extinct daily. Western civilization has
been immensely successful but it has also brought a revolution
of "values" that, in the words of the British historian Michael
Woods, may yet be our undoing.
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The Hudson River Watershed
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The Hudson
River is a major American waterway located in New York State.
It flows for 510 km (315 mi), from its source in the Adirondack
Mountains, past Troy, where it is joined by the Mohawk river,
its main tributary, between the Catskill and the Taconic mountains.
It empties into the New York Bay and the Atlantic Ocean at New
York City. The river drains an area of 34,630 sq km (13,370 sq
mi). An important transportation artery, the Hudson is navigable
for oceangoing vessels to Albany and for smaller vessels to Troy.
The New York State Barge Canal, also known as the Erie Canal,
links the Hudson with the Great Lakes.
The Hudson was visited by Henry
Hudson who was looking for a quick passage to China in 1609.
He found the area inhabited by the local Algonquian Indians. He
traveled about 150 miles up the river before realizing it was
not a passage. Soon, the area saw a rapid influx of Dutch colonists
and was known as New Amsterdam. It changed later to New York,
under Britain control. During the following century, the Hudson
basin experienced years of constant economic growth, coupled with
growing military and strategic importance. In 1782, during the
Revolutionary War, George Washington moved his headquarters to
Newburgh. The invention of the steamboat in 1807 opened the Hudson
River to leisure travel. The first industrial build up started
with the discovery of iron ore in the area and the West Point
Foundry started operation in 1812. Cold Spring became a bustling
industrial center. With the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825,
the Hudson River became one of the nation's main arteries of trade.
The canal opened a gateway to the west and prompted a period of
major economic and industrial expansion in the area. The Hudson
Valley with its evergreen forests, mountains and fresh air was
the only hope in the 1800s for many people suffering with tuberculosis
and other diseases. The Hudson is famous for its scenic beauty,
which inspired the 19th century Hudson River School of Painting.
The major contaminant in the Hudson
River waters today are PCBs
(Polychlorinated biphenyls compounds). These contaminants cause
damage to the nervous system, immune system, reproductive system
and are one of the causes of learning disabilities. Their recent
ban is a powerful reminder that any chemical introduced into the
environment on a large scale should first be studied for potential
problems.
For 30 years, two General Electric (GE) facilities, that made
electrical capacitors, dumped PCBs into New York's Hudson River.
In 1976, PCBs were found to be a probable cause of cancer. In
1977 the US federal government banned further dumping of PCBs
into the Hudson, but these long-lasting chemicals remain in the
river bottom. Eating fish from the Mid-Hudson River is the primary
way for humans to be exposed to the PCBs. Fish consumption advisories
are now in effect for the entire Hudson River.
Although some experts argue that the PCBs should be left where
they are because attempts to remove them would disperse the checmicals
in the river the Environmental Protection Agency in November 2001
ordered a clean-up to begin with the dredging of 40 hotspots along
a 43-mile section of river, pulling out 100,000 pounds of the
1.3 million pounds of PCBs that were dumped.
There are four major types of pollutants.
- Inorganic pollutants are
suspended or dissolved materials. Minerals and soluble salts
enter the river waters as runoff from streets, roads, parking
lots, and exposed soil. Suspended inorganic pollutants increase
the water turbidity, causing an increase in temperature, and
a decrease in oxygen content. Organisms that require higher
oxygen levels may not survive. Suspended solids may clog the
gills of some fish, while larger particles can settle on the
river bed and change the existing bottom habitat. These conditions
may be unsuitable for many aquatic organisms.
- Organic pollutants come mainly
from the decomposition of plants and animals. Grass, dead leaves,
human and animal waste are all sources of organic pollution.
High levels of organic pollutants in a river decrease oxygen
levels as microorganisms use the oxygen to break down organic
material. This is the case for a high Biochemical Oxygen Demand
(BOD). Low oxygen levels favor organisms like sewage worms and
aquatic beetles. Other organisms that require higher oxygen
levels cannot survive.
By-products of organic breakdown are nitrogen and phosphorus.
These nutrients act as fertilizer, favoring the growth of algae
and other aquatic plants. The resulting decrease in light and
oxygen have a negative impact on existing aquatic life.
- Toxic pollutants are various
metals and chemical compounds discharged as by-products of industrial
processes. Cadmium, mercury, chromium, iron and lead and chemicals
like PCBs and DDT are lethal to some organisms. They also interfere
with the organisms normal biological processes. Household products,
such as bleach, drain cleaners, and pesticides as well as herbicides
and insecticide from farming, also represent toxins that find
their way into river waters.
Toxic pollutants enter the food chain through organisms that
process sediment, such as midges and worms. As these organisms
are eaten by other animals, they move up the food chain and
accumulate in organisms. In larger fish, toxins can cause lesions
and deformities.
- Thermal Pollution is the
result of industrial processes and runoff from streets and roads
during rainy periods. Power generators and some industrial processes
use river water as coolant. The discharged water is at a much
higher temperature. Warm water holds less oxygen. Some organisms
will not survive under warmer conditions while others will come
to depend on the changed environment for their survival. Warmer
conditions may also disrupt the food chain; insects can go through
an early metamorphosis and deprive birds of an emergent insect
population
A good start to study a river's health conditions is collecting
data by running a series of tests. There are several companies
offering testing equipment and apparatuses for indepth water quality
testing. LaMotte's kit offers an inexpensive and simple way of
testing. Test results give a good insight into the quality of
the tested water. The following is a brief description of the
LaMotte's tests. For more information consult the Green booklet
that came with the kit and visit the Earth
Force website.
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it is helpful to consult a map of the testing area and to be aware
of any industrial, agricultural and/or residential uses of the
areas adjacent to the stream, estuary or river being monitored.
These areas could have an impact on the quality of the water.
Using the map and information collected from local environmental
agencies it is possible to develop a hypothesis on the status
of the stretch of river or estuary pointing to a specific problem
or pollutant. Local agencies can provide additional information
on the area's practices and policies.
Surgical gloves and
protective goggles should be worn at all times during the performance
of the tests.
A representative
sample can be collected away from the river bank. Water samples
could be collected from a pier or boat. The container should be
rinsed with the sampling water several times and capped while
still submerged. Testing should be done at the site and soon after
the water sample is retrieved.
Coliform bacteria occur naturally in the human digestive tract;
they aid in the digestion of food, and are not pathogenic. Diseases
and illnesses are caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites found
along with fecal coliform bacteria in infected individuals. Fecal
coliform levels are monitored because of the correlation between
fecal coliform and pathogenic bacteria. Fecal coliform bacteria
are absent in unpolluted waters.
LaMotte's test indicates coliform presence above (positive) or
below (negative) 20 colonies per 100 mL water.
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| Coliform at 24 hours |
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A positive test result for
Coliform at 48 hours |
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Fill the large test tube containing a Coliform Bacteria tablet
to the 10 ml line. Cap the tube and incubate at room temperature
for 48 hours. Do not handle or disturb the tube during the incubation
period. Compare the appearance of the tube to the picture on the
coliform color chart. Record the result as negative or positive.
A (less than 20
total coliform colonies per 100 ml of water) exhibits a clear
liquid above the bottom gel part. The indicator remains red or
turns yellow and there are no gas bubbles.
A (more than 20
total coliform colonies per 100 ml of water) shows a rising of
the bottom gel to the surface with many gas bubbles. The liquid
below the gel turns yellow and cloudy.
After the test is
completed, add about 20 drops of household chlorine bleach and
immediately recap. Let the tube stand upright for about 4 hours.
Without opening the tube, dispose of it in the trash. Never re-use
a coliform bacteria tube.
Oxygen is vital for most aquatic plants and animals. The absence
of oxygen indicates severe water pollution. Warmer, slow moving,
polluted waters from sewage or rotting plants have an adverse
effect on dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen is a measure of the
health of a body of water. Cold water can hold more dissolved
oxygen than warm water. Water at 8°C can hold up to 12 ppm
of dissolved oxygen while at 28°C only 8 ppm.
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Take the temperature of the water sample and submerge the small
tube into the water sample. Take out the tube full to the top
and drop two Dissolved Oxygen TesTab into the tube. Cap the tube
and make sure there are no air bubbles in the sample. Mix by inverting
the tube over and over until the tablets have disintegrated. Wait
5 minutes for the color to develop. Compare the appearance of
the tube to the picture on the DO color chart and record the result
as ppm dissolved oxygen.
Locate the dissolved oxygen column for the test result in the
Percent Saturation chart. The Percent Saturation of the water
sample is where the temperature row and the dissolved oxygen column
intersect.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the quantity of the
dissolved oxygen used by aerobic bacteria. When aquatic plants
and fish die, aerobic bacteria take over and feed on the decomposing
organic matter. There are many other sources of organic matter
in rivers that, by decomposing, rob aquatic plants and fish of
the oxygen they need to live. Some organisms will not survive
in low oxygen waters. Others like carp, and sewage worms will
prosper. Organic pollutants come from: meat-packing plants, food
processing industries, fecal materials from animals, waste water
treatment plants, urban runoff from streets and sidewalks.
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Fill and cap the small testing tube below the water surface so
it does not come in contact with the air. Wrap the tube with aluminum
foil and store it in a dark place at room temperature for 5 days.
After the five-day period, unwrap the tube and add two oxygen
TesTabs. Mix by inverting the tube over and over until the tablets
have disintegrated. Wait 5 minutes for the color to develop. Compare
the appearance of the tube to the picture on the BOD color chart.
The biochemical oxygen demand is obtained by subtracting the
current DO reading (Al-wrapped sample) from the original DO value
found five days earlier at the testing site.
Nitrogen is essential for plant growth. It is the element needed
by all living plants and animals to build protein. Fish obtain
the nitrogen they need by eating aquatic plants or by eating other
fish which feed upon plants. The presence of an excessive amount
of nitrogen represent a major pollution problem; it promotes plant
growth and decay, which in turn increases biochemical oxygen demand.
Agricultural fertilizers, untreated city sewage, and industrial
wastes are the major contributors to increased amounts of nitrogen
as nitrates in water.
Fill the
test tube to the 5 mL mark and add one Nitrate Wide Range CTA
TesTab. Cap and mix by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated.
Wait several minutes for the red color to develop. Compare the
color of the sample to the nitrate color chart. Record the result
as ppm nitrate. Following are the ranking values for nitrate.
They are missing from the EarthForce-Green booklet.
The pH test measures the amount of H+, hydrogen ion, present in
a substance. The pH is a number, an "index", which helps us identify
a substance as acid, neutral or alkaline. Substances can exhibit
a pH ranging from 0 (zero), for very strong acids like HCl (hydrochloric
acid) to 14, very strong bases, like NaOH (sodium hydroxide).
Pure water contains equal numbers of H+ ions and OH- ions, and
it is considered, therefore, neutral. The pH of pure, deionized
water is 7. Natural waters have a pH value from 6.5 to 8.2. Most
aquatic life has adapted to a specific acidity and even a slight
change in pH can wipe out a whole population.
Fill the test
tube to the 10 mL mark and add one pH Wide Range TesTab. Cap and
mix by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated. Compare the
color of the sample to the pH color chart. Record the result as
pH.
Phosphorous is an essential element for life; it is needed for
plant growth, and in the metabolic reactions of plants and animals.
The amount found in healthy water is generally small, not more
than 0.1 ppm. Larger amounts of phosphates in polluted waters
cause extensive algal growth, called "blooms." When algae die,
oxygen is used in the decomposition process and the fish population
is usually wiped out. Some of the sources of phosphate pollution
are: sewage from waste water treatment plants, animal and industrial
wastes, fertilizers, and soil erosion
. Fill the
test tube to the 10 mL mark and add one Phosphorus TesTab. Cap
and mix by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated. Wait
several minutes for the blue color to develop. Compare the color
of the sample to the phosphate color chart. Record the result
as ppm (parts per million) phosphate.
Water salinity depends on various factors and represents the total
of all solids dissolved in water. Aquatic organisms can tolerate
a specific amount of salt in water. High and very low salinity
affects their distribution in water. Estuaries are subject to
substantial changes in salinity due to daily tides and seasonal
changes.
With the
enclosed pipet, add 5 drops of the sample water to the large round
tube. Fill the tube to the 100 mL mark with distilled or deionized
water. Fill the test tube to the 10 mL mark with the diluted sample
and add one Chloride TesTab. Mix until the tablet has disintegrated.
Place the tube over the left hand column of black dots (they are
of the same black color intensity, no gradation) on the color
chart. Compare the appearance of the dots through the tube to
the dots in the right-hand column (they exhibit gradation in color).
Multiply the test results by 400. Record the result as ppt (parts
per thousand) salinity.
Some organisms prefer cooler water, such as trout; others thrive
under warmer conditions, such as carp and dragonfly nymphs. Few
organisms can tolerate extremes of heat or cold. Cool water will
hold more oxygen than warm water because gases are more readily
dissolved in cool water. As water temperature rises, the rate
of photosynthesis and plant growth also increases. More plants
grow and die. More oxygen is being consumed. Among the sources
of thermal pollution are industries that use river water to cool
machinery and warm water running off from streets, and parking
lots. Cutting trees has several adverse effects on a watershed:
it eliminates shady areas, adding warmer runoffs to the river.
It induces soil erosion which increases the amount of suspended
solids in the river's water. Turbid, cloudy water absorbs the
sun's rays, causing water temperature to rise.
. Adhere
them to the kit container or to a metal strip that is easy to
handle. The temperature is indicated by a liquid crystal number
on the Low Range thermometer and a green display on the High Range
thermometer.
Place the thermometer 20 centimeters (four inches) below the water
surface for one minute. Record the temperature as degrees Celsius.
Repeat the test approximately 1 km upstream as soon as possible.
The difference between the temperature upstream and the temperature
at the sampling site is the change in temperature.
Turbidity is a measure of the relative clarity of water. Increased
amounts of suspended solids in water reduce the transmission of
light and increase turbidity. High levels of turbidity cause waters
to become warmer as suspended particles absorb heat from sunlight.
Oxygen levels drop in warm waters. In addition, photosynthesis
decreases and further reduces the amount of dissolved oxygen.
Water with high turbidity is adverse to plants and fish, and aquatic
life may be wiped out. Suspended materials range from clay and
silt to industrial wastes and sewage.
. Remove
the backing from the secchi disk icon sticker and adhere the sticker
on the inside bottom of the kit container. Position the sticker
off center. Fill the jar to the turbidity fill mark located on
the outside kit label. Hold the Turbidity Chart on the top edge
of the Jar. Looking down into the jar compare the appearance of
the secchi disk icon in the jar to the chart, then record the
result as turbidity in JTU. (Jackson Turbidity Units).
All reacted test samples,
except coliform bacteria and sometimes salinity, can be disposed
of by flushing down the drain with excess water. While in the
field, reacted samples can be poured together into a waste container
for later disposal. The Chloride TesTabs contain silver which,
in large quantities, is considered to be an EPA characteristic
waste. Waste solutions containing no more than 2 Chloride TesTabs
per liter can be flushed down the drain with excess water. Large
number of chloride TesTabs must be disposed as hazardous waste.
Score the ranking for
each individual test from LaMotte's booklet and add the nitrate
score as per above. Sum all the scores and devide by 9. Find the
Water Quality Index for your stretch of water from the following
table.
The testing of
waters should be performed over a prolonged period of time to
better identify and eventually concentrate on a specific issue
with the quality of the tested waters. The following step should
be a review of the potential cause of the problem and a written
action plan. The action plan could include: the specific identified
water quality issue, the policy or practice that could be changed
to alleviate or eliminate the issue, and the goals and strategies.
A group of
student at IS 54 received a LaMotte test kit from the SEED Foundation
to test the Hudson River waters. During the month of February
2001, the Hudson River waters were tested at the 79th Street Boat
Basin. Sampling at the pier that extends farther into the river
insured a representative river water sample. Following are the
results and a discussion for the two consecutive tests:
Sample Data Sheet used by students
during testing at the site
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